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KINDS OF MEDITATION
There are two kinds of Buddhist meditation: Calming Meditation (samatha),
which calms our minds and leads to higher states, called jhanas
(a word which is often translated as Absorption and which will be more
fully described later), and Insight Meditation (vipassana), which
improves and cultivates our insight, a word which has a special meaning
in Buddhism. They are complementary to each other.
The samatha system of meditation may, however, be regarded as
optional, as it is seen in Buddhism only as a discipline preparatory
to the attainment of wisdom. But vipassana, being a direct path to wisdom,
is regarded in Buddhist teaching as an important and unique system.
The employment of Samatha meditation for cultivating tranquillity
goes back to a time before the Buddha; in all probability it is a very
ancient practice. Prior to the attainment of Buddhahood, Prince Siddhartha
spent six long years investigating the teachings of the major philosophers
of his day. He practised meditation as it was understood at the time,
i.e. Samatha meditation. His teachers had reached the highest
Jhanas. Prince Siddhartha followed suit but found that even though
he attained that same high level of absorption, still he did not solve
the problems that confronted him. This kind of meditation did not supply
the cure for the greatest of woes. Even when his mind was firmly established
in complete Absorption, it was not in a permanent state and there was
still no explanation for, or understanding of, the problems of human
existence. So he persisted in his investigations and eventually discovered
the practice of Vipassana meditation, which enabled him to reach
Enlightenment and to become the Buddha (literally, the “one who knows”).
DAILY ROUTINE
The practice of meditation should not be disconnected from our daily
life, nor should it interfere with our routine. It should be resolved
by the meditator that he or she will devote some time to it every day.
Regularity of practice is important. Training the mind is like training
the body - the greatest benefits can be experienced by establishing
the habit of practising regularly. Try, if possible, to sit at the same
time of day; shorter periods on a daily basis are more helpful than
one long session once a week. People often say that they cannot find
time or a suitable quiet place to meditate. Surely it is possible to
find a way to have 15 minutes of quiet if we so desire.
There is no specific instruction concerning a suitable time for meditation.
Serious meditation students devote most of the day to their practice,
but those people who have busy lay lives should choose a regular period
once or twice a day. Having chosen a particular time or times, try to
keep to an established routine. Some of us will meditate after lunch,
some in the evenings, some in the mornings. Some of us are “owls” and
some are “larks” and only you really know just when you are at your
best. It would not be conducive to the practice for an “owl” to meditate
in the mornings or for a “lark” to sit at night. The important thing
to remember is that the success of the practice depends on the harmony
of body and mind. In order to bring them to their zenith the body and
mind must be in balance and in accord with each other. We cannot meditate
if the mind is drowsy, lazy or restless. The best time for meditation
is that part of the day when both body and mind are most regularly at
their peak.
Although meditation is a practice to be incorporated into our everyday
life, some people find it helpful to go on retreats. A retreat may last
for a day, a weekend, several weeks or even months. During this time
it is possible to free ourselves from the normal pressures and distractions
of everyday life and to apply ourselves to more intensive practice in
an environment which has been specifically designed to encourage meditation.
We benefit from a set programme and routine which support the meditator.
Even apparently small items in the routine may be helpful. For example,
a gong may be struck from time to time which acts like a reminder and
helps to direct the wandering mind back to the meditation object.
PLACE OF PRACTICE
As regards the place in which to start our practice, in the Buddhist
scriptures it refers to a monk having “gone to the forest, or to the
root of a tree, or to an empty place [a hill, a rock cleft, a mountain
cave, a charnel ground, a forest thicket, an open space, a heap of straw]”.
In these days it might not be so easy to find a convenient forest or
heap of straw, but the words are not to be taken too literally. We can
all find a quiet place where we can be alone, undisturbed by people
and external conditions. It is true to say that we can meditate almost
anywhere, even whilst walking or travelling by bus or train, but a quiet,
comfortable place is most conducive to concentration.
Nowhere is entirely without noise, even if we were to retire into the
jungle, the twittering of birds, the wind and the rustle of leaves are
all disturbing, to say little of the ants and mosquitoes! Also, whilst
enjoying the seclusion of such a place, it is known that the imagination
plays havoc and frightening things may be seen. We are warned about
this and advised always to study every detail of our surroundings, only
then can our imagination be brought under control. So wherever we are
meditating we must be prepared to tolerate the inevitable outside distractions.
It is useful to establish one place exclusively as the “sitting place”
or “meditation seat”. The habitual use of this seat solely for this
purpose will precondition both the body and the mind into a calm, peaceful
and receptive state whenever we sit there. In ancient days a yogi might
sit on a tiger skin or a deer skin which would immediately help to prepare
both his mind and his body; in the same way we should associate ourselves
with our chosen place, which is kept clean and prepared for meditation.
The same flexibility as regards time and place for meditation applies
equally to posture. The basic postures used for meditation are sitting
and walking.
POSTURE
The generally recommended posture for meditation is to “sit erect with
mindfulness alert”. This does not, though, demand that you sit in the
full lotus position with ankles placed on top of the thighs. If you
are capable of sitting in the full lotus or half-lotus position comfortably
for some time, then that is fine. Many people, however, are not able
to do this, and so the use of a chair, cushion or small meditation bench
is quite acceptable. It is good if the seat is neither too high, nor
too low, nor too comfortable. If you are seated on the floor, a hard
cushion approximately six to eight inches high creates a posture that
allows free circulation of the blood and minimises discomfort. The important
thing is to adopt a good posture, because poise of the body brings poise
of the mind.
The hands should be resting, palms upwards, on the lap or the crossed
legs. Make sure that the position is comfortable and no tension is allowed
to develop in the upper arms or shoulders because of poor positioning
of the hands. The back must be upright and still. Now allow the shoulders
to drop naturally, and try to get the feeling that your centre of gravity
is just a little below the navel.
When you start meditating, begin by just getting the FEEL of the posture.
Take your time over this process because it is important.
Once you are seated comfortably, close your eyes, or, if you prefer,
half close them and gaze past the tip of the nose. The advantage for
the beginner of closing the eyes fully is that it reduces the number
of distractions by shutting out all unnecessary light and visual stimuli.
This can, however, lead to drowsiness. The Buddha is usually portrayed
as sitting with half-closed eyes, looking past the tip of his nose,
at a point approximately one metre away. Choose whichever technique
you find more comfortable. You could try at the start of your meditation
closing your eyes lightly, then, should you find drowsiness coming on,
open your eyes slightly. Do not look around, but leave your gaze unfocused.
After experimenting in this way you will ward off sleep successfully.
Now relax the body from the top of the head downwards, consciously
considering the scalp and relaxing it; the muscles of the face and relaxing
them; the neck and relaxing it; and so on, until the whole body is relaxed,
calm and supple. This relaxation is most important because, if the body
is hard, tense and stiff, it may induce feelings of pain, dissatisfaction,
restlessness and a general air of distraction, which is not conducive
to concentration.
LOVING-KINDNESS
Essential to all harmonious human relationships is the practice of
love. Buddhists term this special quality Metta or “loving-kindness”,
which is regarded as so important that a specific meditation practice
has been developed around it.
This kind of meditation can be practised daily, either by itself or
as a preparation for other practices which will be described later.
Metta is an attribute which we should all strive to develop to
the maximum. It is particularly useful as a means of arousing positive
states of mind in order to overcome anger and other negative states.
This meditation helps when the concentration is weak and the mind is
distracted. Metta is such an important quality that it needs
to be described in detail.
Metta is a radiance, which springs from a pure heart; it may
be thought of as universal goodwill. There is no one word in the English
language which describes fully such a profound state of mind. Many different
words have been used to translate metta into English, such as
“love”, “loving-kindness” and “universal love”, but metta has
a much deeper sense than is conveyed by any of these words. It is the
foundation of all good qualities in a person; in fact, it can be said
that our entire spiritual development should be built on menu.
It is the basis of all virtues.
When metta is translated as “love”, people may form the impression
that it involves some kind of attachment, but in this kind of love there
is no trace of personal attachment. It is an altruistic, friendly feeling
which is entirely free from lustful desires. We do not expect anything
in return from those to whom we radiate this characteristic. They may
not even know that we are radiating metta towards them, but by
doing this, we fill our own hearts with peace and happiness. In this
process, there is no room for mana, which is often translated
as “conceit”, but which means literally “measuring”, namely measuring
ourself against others in the sense of feeling superior or inferior
or even equal to others.
No discriminatory thoughts should arise in the mind, metta is
not limited by divisions such as “us, “them”, “national”, “international”,
“high”, or “low”, etc. The person who truly practises metta radiates
this quality equally and impartially in all directions - north, south,
east, west, above and below. Not only are all human beings included,
but also all animals and even the environment too. The true practitioner
pollutes neither the land, nor the air, nor the water; doing nothing
which may spoil the environment in anyway or disturb others because
there is such a caring but unbiased feeling towards all objects, both
animate and inanimate.
To develop metta is to bring peace, both to oneself and to others.
This is such a sublime state that it has been described by the Buddha
as a “heavenly abode”, in the sense that when you develop metta,
even if only for a little while, you become like a divine person and
experience divine feelings. This has the power to transform a man into
a superman. It is a defining characteristic of every spiritually advanced
person.
Metta is a force for the removal of all unpleasantness and unhappiness,
both in the family and in society at large. Metta is the exact
opposite of anger, resentment and illwill because it is a pure form
of goodwill which is extended without any limitations to the entire
phenomenal world. Anger always arises because of attachment to the idea
of self or “I am” (sakkaya-ditthi), but there is no room for
this kind of attachment in the practise of metta. Anger is a
mental state which spoils our behaviour, it can lead to the destruction
of our possessions, and can even make us sick. We can observe how its
arising brings about immediate changes in the appearance both of ourselves
and others. Anger is responsible for many of the problems in the world,
from petty quarrels or strife up to world wars. In the Anguttara
Nikaya the Buddha says that there are seven characteristics of an
angry person which will be a cause of satisfaction to his enemies:
1. No matter how he may be dressed, he will look ugly.
2. He may be living in the lap of luxury, but he will be in pain.
3. Because he cannot think properly, he will mistake good for evil,
and evil for good, and so he loses his belongings.
4. He loses whatever fame he had achieved through previous diligence.
5. He loses his friends.
6. When he dies, he is reborn in an unhappy place.
7. When all this happens, one who hates the angry person will derive
tremendous satisfaction from his sufferings.
On many occasions the Buddha pointed out the negative effects of anger.
In the Dhammapada we read, “Hatred is never appeased by hatred;
through love alone it ceases. This is an eternal law.” (Dhammapada
v.5) Hatred confuses the mind by destroying the concentration. No
angry person can devote attention fully to a chosen subject because
the mind is restless, confused and distracted by other thoughts. This
is also true for meditators and that is why metta is especially
helpful for clearing the mind of negative thoughts at the start of a
meditation session.
Metta has been compared with parental love. There is no purer
form of selfless goodwill than the love which a mother has for her own
child. Similarly, we should develop metta towards all beings.
There is no limit to which this practice can be developed. The heart
should overflow with love. Once the Buddha told his monks, “Suppose
a man has his hands cut off by robbers with a double-handed saw. Even
then he should not feel angry. If he gives way to anger, then he is
not following my teachings. He who hates others only hurts himself.
But he who does not give way to hatred, even though he has been injured,
emerges victorious.” (Kakacupama Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya). In
the Itivutthaka, the Buddha said,
“Of all
the kinds of worldly enjoyment, nothing has even one-sixteenth of
the freedom of the radiant heart that metta brings”.
THE WAY TO PRACTISE METTA
We should start with developing metta towards ourselves. You
cannot radiate to others what is not already within yourself. Therefore,
start with yourself and repeat these words, “May I be free from anger;
may I be free from enmity; may I be free from anxiety. May I be happy
and peaceful.” Repeating this as many times as possible, fill your entire
being with loving feelings from head to toe so that you become an embodiment
of loving-kindness. By cutting off all kinds of negative thoughts, through
the power of metta we can protect ourselves from the hostile
vibrations of other people.
Having developed this attribute as fully as possible towards ourselves,
then we can extend it towards others. Start this process by including
people for whom you feel great respect and reverence, such as parents
and teachers. Then include members of your family and friends. Slowly
expand these feelings to include people living close by, then those
living further away, then people to whom you feel generally neutral,
and eventually include people who may even be regarded as “enemies”.
By continuing in this fashion, we expand our metta to include
all beings, regardless of their characteristics or their circumstances,
irrespective of status, nationality, or sex.
There are certain kinds of people to whom it is not helpful to direct
our thoughts of metta at the start of our meditation. Exclude
people to whom you may be sexually attracted as this may give rise to
lust; exclude persons for whom you have aversion or resentment as this
may give rise to anger; and exclude anyone who has recently died as
this may give rise to sorrow.
Expanding from the world of human beings, we continue to radiate our
feelings of metta embracing all kinds of animals, insects and
other living creatures, also including those beings living in heavens
and purgatories. Metta should be radiated without any limitations
or obstructions. Thus we come to identify ourselves with all beings,
thinking “As I am, so may all beings be happy”.
One of the most important of the Buddha’s discourses is the Karaniya
Metta Sutta in which the development of metta is described as follows:-
“May
all beings be happy and secure, may their hearts be wholesome!
“Whatever
living beings there be - those mentally feeble or strong; physically
long, stout or medium, short, small or large; those seen or unseen,
dwelling far or near; those who are born and those who are to be born
- may all beings, without exception, be happy-minded!
“Let
none deceive another nor despise any person whomsoever in any place,
in anger nor ill-will let one not wish any harm to another.
“Just
as a mother would protect her only child at the risk of her own life,
even so, let one cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings.
“Let
thoughts of infinite love pervade the whole world - above, below and
around - without any obstructions, without any hatred, without any
enmity.
“Whether
standing, walking, sitting or lying down, as long as one is awake,
this mindfulness should be developed: this, the wise say, is the highest
conduct here.”
The beneficial results of this practice are enormous. According to
the scriptures, in the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha said that
there are eleven benefits which come to the mind of someone who practises
metta:
1. He sleeps in comfort.
2. He awakes comfortably.
3. He has no evil dreams.
4. He is dear to human beings.
5. He is dear to non-human beings.
6. Gods protect him.
7. Fire, poison and weapons cause no harm (to his mental tranquillity).
8. His power of concentration is very high.
9. His face has a serene expression.
10.He will have a peaceful death.
11.After death, he will be reborn in a heavenly realm.
MINDFULNESS OF BREATHING
Let us turn now to the technique of establishing mindfulness of breathing
(Anapanasati). The purpose of this meditation is to become MINDFUL.
The Pali word sati is often translated as “mindfulness”, but “awareness”
is more direct.
You should find a quiet place and sit comfortably, relaxed, but also
alert. You are balanced. And you are breathing. It is true that you
have been breathing all the time, but now you are intentionally becoming
aware of it. Do not attempt to control the breathing in any way. Simply
allow breathing to happen naturally in the same way as you allow swallowing
to happen when you drink.
Breathing is the most discernible and constant function of the body.
It is fundamental to life. Anapanasati is very simply being mindful,
being fully aware of the breath as you inhale and as you exhale. It
sounds simple and easy, child’s play in fact! Just while you are reading
this, stop and relax for a few moments, then watch the breath as it
enters the body and leaves it! Let the breath do the breathing, all
on its own, after all it didn’t need you to interfere before, did it?
Now watch.......
In order to help follow the breath it is essential to establish one-pointedness
of mind by directing your attention to one spot, either the tip of the
nose where the breath first touches or the abdomen. If you hold the
attention on the touch of the air passing the tip of the nose, you may
find it helpful to notice a slight cooling sensation on inhalation and
a warming sensation on exhalation as the breath flows past the nostrils.
Alternatively, the breath can be observed as it causes the abdomen
to rise and fall. When you breathe normally and naturally the inhalation
causes the abdomen to swell or rise, and the exhalation will cause the
abdomen to fall. The breath can then be observed by watching this rising
and falling, and mentally noting, “rising, rising”, and “falling, falling”.
A word of caution is necessary here, when one method of observation
has been adopted it is as well not to mix it with the other method.
Therefore an inhalation being observed by watching the abdomen should
not be followed by an exhalation observed by watching the breath pass
through the nostrils. Keep to the one method that has proved most beneficial
to you. There is flexibility in these techniques, but be vigilant and
do not change methods just for the sake of change.
To be aware of breathing you must be aware of the breath you are taking
in NOW, not the one before and not the next one. Be aware of it at the
chosen point of the body. This is known simply as “one-pointedness”.
At this stage be careful not to follow the breath as it flows through
the body. The technique is just to observe the breath at the chosen
point. Be like a gate-keeper of an old, walled city. His job is simply
to note people as they arrive and leave. What they do inside the city
is of no concern to the gate-keeper. Similarly, what happens to the
breath inside his body is not the concern of the meditator.
You may have noticed that some breaths were longer than others, some
may have been quite short, perhaps one inhalation was very long and
the exhalation was quite short. Just note the breathing, taking each
breath, each inhalation, each exhalation in turn and observe it without
making judgements. When you breathe in note the whole in-breath, when
you breathe out note the whole out-breath, its beginning, its middle
and its end, noting whether it is short or long, deep or shallow. Do
not force the breath, this is not a breathing exercise, it is an exercise
in mindfulness. The breath should be left to breath, on its own, and
all you do is note it mentally!
All the while you have been observing the breath, your mind has been
preoccupied with the novelty of the new game, but now the novelty has
started to wear thin. The mind, in its incessant pursuit of things to
think about, is impatient to be off into some new fantasy or other.
The merest excuse will do to distract the mind from the disciplined
observation of the breath. Perhaps you heard something, a car, or a
bird, or someone talking? You thought about it, considered what it was,
whether you should investigate it, but whatever you did think, you took
your mind away from the breathing and pursued the new object of thought.
Back to breathing! After a while you may have remembered something,
something you should do at once in case you forget! Or maybe you remembered
something pleasant or unpleasant, and just for a few moments you considered
its relative importance. Return the awareness to the breathing. All
the time, during this very brief period, thoughts have been rising in
your mind as you tried to watch the breath come and go. The important
thing here is to be mindful, just to observe the thoughts as
they arise and to make the note: “thought”; to observe the distractions
such as noises as: “sound”; and so on. Simply be aware of them and after
noting their arising return to the observation of the breath. Of course,
distracting thoughts will arise; you cannot expect to be able to eliminate
them right from the very beginning. The important thing is to become
aware as soon as such a thought arises, but not to get upset that it
has arisen
DEEPENING THE PRACTICE
If you have difficulty in concentration, if your mind is constantly
occupied with some thought or other, then it may be an advantage to
settle the mind for a while by counting the breaths. This method is
reasonably simple and effective: on every in-breath count one, until
you reach ten after ten breaths, then start again. Another way is merely
to count every inhalation and exhalation thus:
inhaling, one; exhaling, two; inhaling, three; exhaling four, etc.
until you reach ten. Never go above ten or you will be concentrating
on the numbering rather than on the breathing.
When you practise in this way, you should be able to build up your
concentration. Some people may find that they miss certain numbers out
or count two breaths once, or carry on counting beyond ten, or they
may lose track altogether in the middle! Such people should persevere
but should also be careful not to become disheartened, depressed or
disappointed. Perhaps they should practise for shorter periods each
day or maybe shorter periods more frequently.
Every time the mind wanders, it should be brought back and anchored
on the chosen point, that is the nostrils or the abdomen. The mind may
stay there for a while and then wander away again. Mindfully bring it
back and focus it again on the subject. It is a concerted effort to
focus the attention, made by the meditator willingly and with full awareness.
The Buddha likened effort to the string of a lute. If the string is
too tight, the wrong note will be produced. Similarly, if it is too
slack the wrong note will also be produced. Only the right degree of
tension will produce the correct note. Similarly, the right degree of
effort is required in meditation.
When the practice is established and concentration becomes easier,
then you can look at the breathing in more detail. You can observe the
flow of the air during the breath, noting the pause, if any, between
inhaling and exhaling, exhaling and inhaling and noting when the breath
appears to stop. (This stop may seem quite alarming, but it is quite
natural, because your sense of time makes a pause seem like eternity!)
As you achieve success in this practice, you will find that your concentration
will extend little by little. The body becomes relaxed and breathing
becomes gentle. There is a feeling of peace. Events outside or inside
the mind no longer distract you from the object of meditation.
THE FOUR FOUNDATIONS OF MINDFULNESS
Breathing meditation is but one part, albeit a self-sufficient one,
of the system of meditations called Satipatthana or the Foundations
of Mindfulness. These are four in number and are sub-divided into various
subjects. Initially, we shall look at them as separate entities but
in reality we should see them as one interrelated whole.
The first part is called Mindfulness of Body, that is, this
physical body. Within this section we have (1) mindfulness of in- and
out-breathing, which we have just examined, (2) consideration of the
four postures, walking, standing, sitting, and lying down, (3) paying
full attention to whatever one is doing, (4) contemplation on the 32
parts of the body - this section contains very useful considerations
which we shall come to later, (5) analysis of the Four Elements, and
(6) the cemetery contemplations.
The second part is called Mindfulness of Feelings. Using the
same technique of concentration, we can observe feelings as they arise.
During this practice note the various sensations giving rise to pain,
pleasure or indifference, here again simply note that, “pain has arisen”,
or “pleasure has arisen”, or that neither pleasure nor pain has arisen,
which is a neutral experience. As in the previous section simply note
the existence of these states, note how they arise and how they pass
away but do not dwell on them, observe simply their arising and their
passing away.
The third part is Mindfulness of Mind or mindfulness of the
states of consciousness. This is the noting of the state of mind - whether
it is angry, sad, distracted, deluded or loving, concentrated or compassionate.
Difficult as it is at times, we should be aware of our state of mind
and note it. We should not allow ourselves to be distracted, but should
merely note that such and such a state of mind has arisen. Later you
may begin to note how these states arise and how they pass away.
The fourth part is meditation on specific ethical, spiritual and intellectual
subjects listed in the Discourse on Mindfulness as Mindfulness of
Mental Objects. (Please refer to the section of the sutta shown
later.) Whilst we are engaged in meditation on one of these mental objects,
we should not allow the mind to wander around the subject. Direct the
mind to an analytical approach, considering the arising of the particular
object and examining it in depth, not allowing the mind all the while
to deviate or repeat itself.
The process of concentration described in each of the above four sections
of this discourse is samatha meditation, but at the end of each
section we are advised to contemplate the true nature of the activity
on which we are maintaining our awareness. This represents a switch
from samatha to vipassana, in which we become aware of
the arising and ceasing of each object, as impermanent, as subject to
change, and as devoid of any abiding essence. For example with Mindfulness
of Mind, it is important to observe when a state of mind such as anger
or happiness or joy arises, and note it as “there is anger”, etc. and
not as “I am angry”. The statement “I am angry” precludes any objective
attempt to examine what really is experienced. We are not interested
in the “I” that thinks that it is angry but only in the arising and
the cessation of the mental state of anger, hence we note, “there is
anger”. If we examine the experience of a mental state such as anger
or joy objectively, as it arises, we shall not be able to find any self
or “I” to which this state is attached. Examined dispassionately we
can only say, “there is joy”, or “there is anger”.
MINDFULNESS OF BODY
In addition to sitting meditation, walking meditation is a very
useful aid and adjunct. In meditation centres where the practice of
meditation is intensive, the periods of sitting meditation are broken
up with periods of walking meditation. This is not just good exercise
or done for a change, it is an integral part of the practice and is
a form of meditation in its own right. It is particularly useful for
establishing concentration, and you can practise almost anywhere that
is quiet and undisturbed. You can walk miles in your own bedroom!
Having established a suitable place, start off fairly slowly, noting
each footstep one after the other thus:
left, right, left, right After some time begin to note more details
within each step: up, over, down, up, over, down, up..... and note each
movement of the feet, legs, etc. when turning, straightening the body,
stopping, in fact whatever the body does, note it! When you are standing,
simply note that you are standing.
As with Anapanasati, when the object is well established, you
can then become aware of the various sensations and associated mental
states as they arise and note them. Consider that there are three elements
to any bodily movement. These are known as citta (the thought
of making the movement), kiriya (the function which activates
the movement), and vayo-dhatu (the internal air element which
causes the movement). Any movement of the body is dependent upon all
three coming together.
In fact awareness should be extended to include whatever posture the
body is in; no matter what the body is doing, be aware of it, from the
top of the head down to the tip of the toes. Whether sitting, walking,
standing or lying down, this mindfulness should be constantly maintained.
When the mind has been established one-pointedly on whatever the body
is doing in that particular moment, then direct the attention to become
aware of the impersonal nature of the bodily process which is being
observed. For example when walking, become aware simply of the movement
of the feet and legs; how the movement of each limb arises, changes
and ceases.
There is yet another meditation posture: lying down. This is
also suitable for the practice of mindfulness of breathing and of other
practices such as the kasinas and discursive contemplation (more
about these later), but it is necessary here to be on guard not to fall
asleep! It is better to lie on the right side so as to keep the heart
free of pressure and allow the blood to circulate more easily. Be mindful
of how the body is lying. Be aware of how the limbs are arranged. In
addition to the meditations already discussed, there are a number of
other valuable practices to be considered.
The reflection on the 32 parts of the body is useful for developing
an awareness of the true nature of this body. At first sight it may
appear quite beautiful and we attach much value to it as an attractive
object. This is only a partial view, however, and totally ignores the
body in its less appealing states. When Prince Siddhartha awoke in the
early hours of the day on which he left his palace for the homeless
life, he saw his servants and dancing girls asleep on the ground. Their
bodies were carelessly disarranged in sleep and the sight filled him
with disgust. On the surface lies the body’s beauty, but underneath
the skin lies the truth of this body. There is an appropriate Pali proverb
which says:
sace
imassa kayassa - anto bahirato siya, dandam nuna gahetvana - kake
soneca varaye.
If one
could turn this body inside out -
be ready to chase away the crows and dogs.
The 32 parts of the body are enumerated in the Satipatthana Sutta
but the first five are of particular note. These are the hair of the
head, hair of the body, nails, teeth and skin. These five are those
parts of the body which are beautified and adorned. They should therefore
be paid special attention and efforts should be made to see them in
their true nature.
A husband may be very impressed with his wife’s hair-do, so expensively
acquired by skill at the hairdressers, a great deal of effort and technology
has gone into the creation this superb coiffure. Her husband acclaims
it as a beautiful style which enhances his wife’s beauty and they are
both pleased and gratified by the appearance. The husband, however,
sings a different song sometime later, when, as he sits down to his
dinner, he finds mixed up with the food one of the selfsame hairs he
praised so highly only hours before. He is so disgusted that he is unable
to eat the food and admonishes his wife in no uncertain terms. The hair
itself is no different in either case, but the hair’s function has changed;
that change has brought about this unsatisfactory state of affairs.
In this way should these five parts of the body be contemplated, drawing
from our own experiences the unpleasantness of the hair, nails, teeth
and skin. The remaining parts of the body are repulsive in their nature,
being sweat, grease, fat, bile, mucous, urine, etc.
This meditation is particularly useful for people of a lustful disposition
whose faculties are fascinated by the appearance of the body. For those
of us who are assailed daily by sensuous advertising in the cities,
this meditation may also be a counter-balance against unwholesome thoughts.
There is the contemplation of the four elements. Matter is deemed
to be composed of four elements, namely, earth (pathavi), water
(apo), fire (tejo,), and air (vayo). They each
have their own characteristics. Earth has the characteristic of solidity
or extension. Water has the characteristic of fluidity and cohesion.
Fire has the characteristic of heating, and air or wind has the characteristic
of motion. All matter is composed of all four elements but, where one
element predominates, then a substance can be said to be solid, or liquid,
etc.
The elements can be observed during meditation, in relation to the
body, particularly as heat or water.
For instance when the body perspires, note: “There is excess of the
water element”. Or perhaps the bodily activities are causing discomfort
and restlessness, in which case we should note: “There is excess of
the air element or motion”. By noting the arising and ceasing of these
states we shall come to realise that this body is in a constant state
of flux, is impermanent and is liable to decay.
A most effective meditation designed to arouse indifference to the
body and leading to an integral understanding of both it and its constituent
parts is the Cemetery Contemplations. These were performed by
meditative monks in the charnel ground, studying a corpse. In order
to practise this successfully, the meditator must first establish good
concentration. He must be mentally sharp and alert if he is to see the
decomposition of the body as it is taking place. Every stage of decomposition
is contemplated as being of the true nature of the body. The monk considers
that decomposition is inevitable and that this body of his is also destined
to reach a similar state of putrefaction. Perhaps people are fortunate
that in this age we cannot be given this subject of meditation!
Another form of meditation involves the use of an object known as a
kasina, of which there are ten different kinds. A kasina
is an external device used as a means of focusing and developing concentration.
We take an object such as a coloured disc or circle of clay, to which
we give our full and undivided attention. After prolonged practice this
image will remain even when the eyes are closed. By persevering in this
practice we shall reach a state of mind in which all sense-activity
is suspended.
Yet another form of meditation is Discursive Contemplation,
such as Reflection on the Virtue of Holy People. Here a Buddhist would
reflect on the loving-kindness of the Buddha; Hindus may choose a deity
and reflect on the aspect it represents; a Christian will reflect upon
Christ and his self-sacrifice.
Of these many different kinds of meditation, there are some which require
a skilled meditation teacher to ascertain your particular temperament
and identify which technique is best suited to your character. Mindfulness
of breathing and Metta, however, are suitable for all people
and were highly recommended by the Buddha himself.
BALANCE OF FACULTIES
Mention should be made here of the question of “energy”. If you try
too hard because of over-enthusiasm, the mind becomes confused and distracted
by an excess of energy. This makes it hard to concentrate. On the other
hand, if you do not try hard enough, you may sink into lethargy, indolence
or day-dreaming.
Energy is one of five faculties (indriya-samatta) which must
be in equilibrium. The five are faith (in the sense of confidence based
on knowledge), understanding, mindfulness, concentration and energy.
Faith should be balanced with understanding, and concentration with
energy. Someone who has an abundance of faith, but little understanding
is in danger of accepting things uncritically. Someone who has strong
understanding but who is weak in faith errs on the side of cunning.
By balancing these two faculties you develop justified confidence based
on proper understanding. Similarly, someone who is strong in concentration,
but weak in energy is liable to idleness. Someone who is full of energy
but lacking in concentration is in danger of becoming agitated. A balance
between these two faculties ensures that energy does not lapse into
idleness, and concentration does not lapse into agitation. Helping to
maintain the balance between the other four faculties is mindfulness,
which is needed in all instances. It acts as the mind’s refuge, protector,
activator and restrainer. Its importance is likened to that of salt
which must be present in all manner of different sauces.
OBSTACLES
There are obstacles to your progress in meditation which are known
as the Five Hindrances (Nivarana). These are sensual desire,
anger, laziness, restlessness and doubt. Each one of these states is
an effective block to any advancement and should be removed as far as
is possible.
First of all, you should simply be aware that “anger has arisen”, or
that “there is restlessness”. Initially you may not be very successful
at overcoming these Hindrances, but the mindfulness of these states
is a very important first step. It takes a certain amount of courage
to admit to yourself that negative states do exist in your mind, but
you must be honest with yourself. When you can observe how such a state
of mind arises and how it passes away, then intervention becomes possible,
enabling you to maintain an objective viewpoint and to refrain from
identifying yourself with these states. As your meditative skills develop,
your mindfulness deepens so that you can identify the arising of negative
states earlier and earlier, and ultimately you may be able to prevent
them from arising at all.
JHANIC FACTORS
When we practise concentration on breathing or any other object, such
as a kasina, we try to attain one-pointedness or singleness of
mind. The aim is to exclude all extraneous thoughts which clutter the
mind so that the mind dwells uninterruptedly on the chosen object. If
we practise thoroughly, earnestly and with dedication, there is a sequence
of five attributes which will be developed. These, in their turn, lead
to the overcoming of the five hindrances previously mentioned, Each
attribute suppresses one particular hindrance and together they make
it possible to attain the first absorption or Jhana.
The first attribute is vitakka (thought conception), the initial
application of the mind to the object of meditation. This has been likened
to a bee choosing and landing on a flower, or a sailor eventually reaching
an island after a shipwreck, for it needs a degree of energy to apply
the mind to the object, namely the tip of the nostrils. This cannot
be achieved by a lazy mind, but the wholehearted application of the
mind results in the suppression of the hindrance of thina-middha,
laziness and inactivity.
The second attribute is vicara (discursive thinking), the sustained
application of the mind to the object, in which the meditator studies
the object thoroughly. This is like the bee searching the flower to
locate the exact source of the nectar, or the shipwrecked sailor coming
to know all the characteristics of the island he has reached, such as
sources of food and water, etc. Here the meditator studies the nature
of the breathing in detail, its variations, whether it is long or short,
where precisely it touches the nostrils and so on. In this process confidence
develops and the meditator overcomes uncertainty about meditation (vicikiccha),
which is a state in which the mind wavers.
The meditator will find that this examination pleases him, and this
leads to the arising of the third attribute, piti, which is a joyful
feeling in the mind. This feeling leads to the suppression of anger,
displeasure or disliking (vyapada).
This feeling of joy leads on to sukha, which is happiness. This
sense of happiness means the meditator is now calm, both physically
and mentally. The meditator experiences restfulness in mind and body,
and so the fourth hindrance is inhibited, that is restlessness and worry
(uddhacca-kukkucca). Piti is like the sight of a clear pool to
our sailor; sukha is like drinking water from it and bathing
in it.
In this situation of profound calm, the concentration becomes well
established on the object and uninterrupted. This leads to what is called
upekkha or equanimity, which means viewing an object with a balanced
mind, having transcended both pain and pleasure, and having eliminated
both attachment and aversion with regard to all conditioned things.
This leads to the suppression of sensual desires (kamacchanda).
At each stage in this process two things happen at the same time -
the wholesome state of mind develops and the associated hindrance is
suppressed. When all these five attributes are working together in unison,
the first jhana is attained. This is a state in which the mind
is devoid of the five hindrances and endowed with the five jhanic
factors.
Compared with its ordinary state, the mind is now highly developed.
Right up to the stage of upekkha the mind is still directed towards
the meditation object; the jhanic factors are the outcome or
result of this concentration. This is, however, a rather delicate state
of mind, which is vulnerable to disruption and easily lost. It must
be strengthened by cultivating the following five habits (panca vasita)
-
1. Avajjana vasita - turning the attention to the Jhana.
2. Samapajjana vasita - inducing and maintaining it.
3. Adhitthana vasita - pre-determining the period of its maintenance.
4. Vutthana vasita - emerging from it.
5. Pacca vekkhana vasita - reflecting on it, retrospecting on
how this state was attained.
The first three habits are to be practised before or during the state
of jhana, the last two are to be practised after leaving the
state. It is important for the meditator to cultivate these five habits
in relation to all four jhanic states in order to strengthen the ability
to attain the jhanas at will. In this way he will establish mastery
over these states; he will control them - both their arising and their
ceasing; they do not control him. Hence regular practice is essential
- just like in the early stages of meditation.
JHANIC STATES
There are four blissful states of absorption or jhanic states.
The first, as we have just discussed, is a state of peace, yet thought
conception and discursive thinking are still present. As soon as these
have ceased, the meditator has attained the second jhana, a state
of highest rapture, free of thinking and pondering. This will fade away
as equanimous joy pervades the mind, the meditator is now in the third
jhana. Then, as the joy fades, a state of perfect equanimity
is reached - the fourth and highest jhana. After emerging from
the fourth jhana, the mind is described in the texts as “serene,
pure, lucid, stainless, devoid of evil, pliable, able to act, firm,
and imperturbable”.
The meditator may choose to remain in these states for a matter of
minutes, or hours or even days. It must, however, be remembered that
all of these states are only temporary and are subject to the all-pervasive
law of impermanence. There is a danger that the meditator may so enjoy
abiding in the happy state of jhana that he comes to believe,
mistakenly, that he has attained nibbana. No matter how high
the attainments in samatha meditation, they do not last and cannot,
therefore, bring permanent happiness. In order to attain this, we must
practise a different form of meditation, we must practise Vipassana.
We can say that samatha means awareness, mindfulness or alertness
directed towards an object, whereas vipassana means realising
its true nature.
The practice of meditation as set out in the Satipatthana Sutta
is a complete, self-sufficient system of meditation. It can be considered
as Samatha meditation because its concentration leads to the Jhanas
or blissful absorptions and induces tranquillity. It can also be considered
as Vipassana meditation because we examine in the course of the
practice the impermanence of phenomena, how we are subject to suffering
or unsatisfactoriness; and we should be aware of the lack of any abiding
or permanent essence or self in this being. The practice also develops
insight into all the situations of everyday life and gives a clear vision
of things as they really are.
Samatha brings the scattered mind to one-pointedness; it sharpens
the mind by removing unnecessary clutter, thus enabling us to see things
clearly and with penetration. Vipassana is spreading the mind
in order to develop awareness of the real nature of everything - that
is, its arising, its changing and its ceasing. The change from Samatha
to Vipassana is brought about by a deliberate decision of the
meditator. Otherwise he simply continues to enjoy the singleness of
mind brought about by the practice of Samatha.
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